In the past 20 years, natural scientists have identified global concerns such as climate change, loss of natural biodiversity, acid rain and deforestation. To fix such problems seemed beyond the scope of any national governments. New international pacts, conventions and protocols rooted in a common commitment to sustainable development seemed the right response. Today, there are several hundred international environmental regimes.
The development of these regimes poses fundamental questions. How fair are environmental agreements? Who sets the agenda? What is the link between environmental and other objectives, especially economic and social development? Countries set different priorities and have different ideas about their responsibility for dealing with problems. Such differences must be catered for, and not for ethical reasons alone. International agreements will fail to deliver unless they embrace pluralism.
Social and political obstacles have meant that many international environmental regimes have not lived up to expectations. Researchers have taken this as a cue to rethink the question of 'who governs the global environment?' If international mechanisms are not always up to the task, and if countries see few incentives to 'go it alone' what alternatives are there for finding co-operative solutions to these problems?
Global Warming –The Critical Question?
In the 4.6 billion years since its birth, the earth has experienced various climate changes. There were several Ice Ages and even periods when the entire global surface was frozen. There were also warmer periods such as the times when dinosaurs prospered; the average temperature then was about 10 degrees Celsius higher than it is today. Furthermore, there are climatic changes over cycles which last from several hundreds of years to as long as several hundred thousand years. Life on this earth has adjusted to these changes, and to the changes in the environment, and has managed to survive.
The temperature rise accompanying the current problematic global warming process is predicted to be an increase of 1.4 - 5.8 degrees C in the next 100 years. About 6,000 years ago, the earth came out of a cold period and entered a warm period called hypsithermal. The earth's surface temperature at that time is thought to have been 2 to 3 degrees C higher than that at the present time. This is about the range of temperature difference that we can anticipate in the coming period. However, whereas temperature increases and decreases in the past took place over a long period of time, several thousands or several tens of thousands of years, the anticipated temperature rise this time will occur in a very short period, about 100 years. Such a drastic change in the environment will undermine the balance in the world's climate and ecological system, and is expected to bring various kinds of changes for the earth as a whole. Also, the global warming process is closely linked to other important problems confronting the earth, including atmospheric pollution, the destruction of the ozone layer, the loss of forests, and desertification. For this reason, when we reflect on the future of the earth and humankind, the prevention of global warming is a critical issue.
The System That Produces Global Warming
About 30% of the sunlight that comes down to the atmosphere is reflected back to space by clouds and other atmospheric matter, so only 70% or so reaches the earth. The sunlight warms the earth's surface, and as a result, the surface radiates infrared radiation (heat). While most of this infrared radiation is discharged to outer space, some part of it is absorbed by such substances as carbon dioxide, water vapor and methane; this in turn warms the earth. This is the "greenhouse" effect. The average temperature of the entire earth's surface is about 15 degrees C.
`However, when the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, and other gases which contribute to the greenhouse effect) increase in density, more of the infrared radiation from the earth's surface is absorbed. The quantity of infrared radiation that escapes back into space decreases, while more heat is accumulated in the atmosphere. As a result, the greenhouse effect is intensified, and global warming occurs.
The Main Substance Causing Global Warming -- Carbon Dioxide
The Impact of Global Warming - Climate Changes and Abnormal Weather
As global warming proceeds, the average temperature in various areas rises; but also global-scale atmospheric circulation changes its pattern, and there is a possibility that large-scale changes in climate may take place. For this reason, seasonal patterns may undergo drastic changes; patterns of rainfall and snowfall may change, with a subsequent impact on water resources. Seasonal winds and typhoon areas could change as well. Abnormal weather conditions, already frequent and widespread, may increase. Such rapid climate change and abnormal weather will increase the occurrence of natural disasters, and cause great damage to society.
--Destruction of the Ecological System
Global warming will cause great damage to the ecological system, which took such a long period of time to develop. This damage will be in forms such as the destruction of forests, desertification, and large-scale changes in atmospheric circulation. The collapse of the delicate balance in the ecological system will cause the extinction of many species of living things, among them many species which are beneficial to humankind. This will be a very large loss.
-- Rise in Sea Level
As global warming proceeds, the remaining ice on the earth will melt, which will in turn increase the volume of seawater, which in turn will cause the sea level to rise. In its Third Report, IPCC (the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) forecast that the sea level will increase by between 9 and 88 cm by the year 2100. If this should come about, there will be a serious impact: port and harbor facilities and coastal industrial facilities will be submerged, and damage caused by high tides and tidal waves will increase.
Also, a number of island nations in the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific will be confronted with the grave prospect of the submersion of most of their territory. The Maldives, for example, is an island nation in the Indian Ocean, consisting of 1,190 islands of various sizes. At the present time, over 80% of the Maldives' entire territory is less than 1 meter above sea level. Therefore, if the forecast rise of sea level does in fact take place, the Maldives will lose most of its land.
-Heavy Blows to Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries
In agriculture, crops suitable for cultivation will change, and agricultural land may be lost. Since the world's population is continuing to increase, the food supply problem is and will continue to be one of the greatest problems for humankind. Due to the impact of global warming on agriculture, the world's food situation may reach a crisis point.
The rapid progress of warming will damage the vegetation that exists today, since it is difficult for vegetation to adapt to rapid environmental change. For this reason, the forestry industry is threatened as well.
Global warming will bring about changes such as a rise in seawater temperature, changes in sea currents and the distribution of plankton. These will in turn alter the environment, which supports marine life, and as a result, the fisheries industry will experience a severe impact.
--On health
The process of global warming is likely to have a significant effect on our health as well. With the advance of warming, infectious diseases such as malaria and yellow fever, which are rampant in the subtropical and tropical zones, may also occur in epidemic proportions in the temperate zones.
Malaria is a disease caused by malarial plasmodia, carried by Anopheles mosquitoes, which are distributed in the subtropical and tropical zones. The disease is characterized by a high fever, and can often prove fatal. If the habitat of Anopheles mosquitoes extends as a result of global warming, malaria may become rampant in many countries.
Similarly, the deep heat of the summer season may become even hotter, and far more people may suffer from sunstroke and heat exhaustion
- On Society
Climate changes caused by global warming, may affect the suitability of various areas for human habitation, so that some areas, which until now have been comfortable environments, may become uninhabitable. With the rise in the sea level, coastal cities and industrial facilities will suffer serious consequences.
In addition, when the heat becomes fierce, the demand for air conditioning will increase during the summer season, and the present power supply capacity may not be adequate to meet the increased demand.
The Kyoto Protocol
At the 3rd Conference of Parties to Conclude the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP3), which was held in December 1997 in Kyoto, the "Kyoto Protocol" was adopted. This Kyoto Protocol set legally binding quantified targets for reducing the emission of greenhouse gases by industrialized countries, and established implement policies and measures according to the specific circumstances of the countries involved. In addition, as a method for encouraging international cooperation and achieving the targets, it adopted the so-called "Kyoto Mechanism”.
Summary of the Kyoto Protocol
Targets for reduction of greenhouse gases
The target reduction ratio for each country was set for the 5-year period from 2008 to 2012 with 1990 as the base year. The target ratios were set at 6% for Japan, 7% for the United States, 8% for EU, and so on. The industrialized countries (the countries listed in the Annex I of the Protocol, and the same hereafter) as a whole are to reduce emissions by 5.2%.
Targeted gases
CO2 (carbon dioxide), CH4 (methane), N2O (nitrous oxide), HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), PFCs (perfluorocarbons), and SF6 (sulfur hexafluoride) are set as the target gases for reduction. With regard to HFCs, PFCs, and SF6, 1995 is set as the base year.
Handling of Sinks (absorption sources)
The net change in emission and absorption of greenhouse gases resulting from new forestation, reforestation, and the restriction of forest reduction which were implemented in 1990 or later, can be counted as a part of the reduction volume. Future discussions will deal with the question of how changes in the absorption volume due to additional activity in land-use change and forestry area should be incorporated into achievement of the target. Flexible International Arrangements for Achievement of the Target These systems are based upon the fact that the cost of reducing greenhouse gases by 1 ton varies among countries, and so, by implementing more measures in low-cost countries, the countries using this method seek to achieve the emission reduction targets at a low overall cost.
Emission Trade-off
Under this system, approval is given for some of the emission amounts to be transferred among the industrialized countries listed in Annex I, for which the emission volume allocation is set. This method does not affect the total emission volume framework for the developed countries as a whole.
Joint Implementation
When an industrialized country carries out a program to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in a country making the transition to a market economy, this system approves the transfer of the resultant reduction units among the countries concerned. Through the implementation of such programs, efforts will be made to achieve additional actual reductions of emission volumes. Because this system deals with parts of the emission framework of industrialized countries for which emission frameworks are already established, it does not affect the total emission framework for the developed countries as a whole.
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
When an industrialized country implements a program to reduce emission of greenhouse gases in a developing country (a country not listed in the Annex I), this system allows the industrialized country to count for itself the amount of reduction achieved. This system has the merit that it enables the industrialized country to use the achieved reduction for achievement of its own target reduction, while the developing country has the opportunity to gain investment and technology transfer.
Policy Measures As for policy measures concerning the achievement of the numerical targets, the Protocol addresses policy measures for such elements as the improvement of energy use efficiency, advanced and innovative research and development on new energy and reusable energy, the expanded use of such energy and the protection of forests as a CO2 absorption agent. These policies should be implemented with consideration to the specific circumstances of the countries concerned. The Question of Developing Countries The question of introducing quantified targets for developing countries was left as an issue to be examined at COP4 and thereafter. Conditions for the Kyoto Protocol Taking Effect When 55 of the signatories of the treaty ratify the Protocol, and when the countries that were accountable for 55% of the carbon dioxide discharged by all developed countries in 1990 ratify it, the Protocol will take effect 90 days from that date.
Status of signatories and ratification by participating countries:
Number of signatories: 84 countries
Number of countries that have ratified it: 33 countries Measures for Preventing Global Warming
International efforts aimed at preventing global warming began during the 1980's. In 1988, in particular, IPPC (the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) was set up, and with a renewed awareness that the problem of global warming is a problem for the entire earth, the meeting pushed for scientific clarification of the causes of warming. Also, in 1997 in Kyoto, the 3rd Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP3) was held, and the "Kyoto Protocol," aimed at the reduction of the discharge of greenhouse gases, was adopted.
The main international moves to combat global warming are listed below
International Moves Directed to Prevent Global Warming 1985 The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) sponsored the Villach Conference in Austria
This was the first international conference of scientists concerning the global warming issue.
The conference issued a declaration that in the first half of the 21st century a rise in the earth's average temperature could occur on a level unprecedented in human history. 1988 The Toronto Conference (the international conference concerning climate change) was held after the Toronto Summit.
It was the first international gathering of political leaders and scientists concering global warming (46 countries represented).
The conference proposed that the emission volume of carbon dioxide be reduced to 80% of the 1988 level by 2005.
UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) agreed to set up the IPPC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change).
For the first time an arena was established where the scientific aspects of global warming could be examined officially through inter-governmental coooperation. 1992 The UN Conference on Environment and Development (The Earth Summit) was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and a framework treaty on climate change was adopted.
The treaty, which was to become the framework for preventing global warming, was concluded, and was signed by 155 countries. It took effect when 50 countries ratified it in 1994. 1995 In Berlin, the First Meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties of the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP1) was held.
The conference decided that a protocol stipulating targets for the reduction of greenhouse gases by industrialized countries would be drawn up by the third conference. (Berlin Mandate) 1997 At COP3, held in Kyoto, Japan, the "Kyoto Protocol" was adopted.
It set a target for the reduction of greenhouse gases which would be legally binding for each (industrialized) country.
It reached agreement on the introduction of the Kyoto Mechanism (the trading of emission credits, joint implementation, and clean development mechanism).
Conclusion:
Global environmental change is a subject area of considerable interest today. Change can be rapid and threatening; thus, the subject has forced itself before the world and its citizenry. Scientists, teachers, policymakers, economists, sociologists, lawyers, and the general public are now addressing it regularly. The subject matter involves both the physiochemical and biological nature of change and the effects and consequences of natural and human-induced change for ecosystems, humans, and human infrastructures. The unifying theme of this course is consideration of both natural and human-induced environmental change, with emphasis on the latter. Earth’s ecosphere or exogenic system--the Earth surface system of land, water, biota, air, ice, and sediments—has always been in a dynamic state of change. Change is probably more characteristic of the planet than constancy.
0 comments:
Post a Comment
Thanks for your Valuable comment